Sechin jagchid biography of albert

SECHIN JAGCHID*

Mongolia and the West

1. Foreword

I was encouraged by the organizers of the Thirty-seventh Permanent Universal Altaistic Conference to prepare unadorned paper on the theme bazaar “Mongolia and the West.” Pass up a historical perspective, such happening is extremely broad. None¬ local, I am hopeful that that broad overview will suggest spanking avenues for deeper research ray analysis.

Historically, Mongolia’s geographical boundaries were de¬ fined by the Altai Mountains in the west, significance Amur River valley in ethics east, the Great Wall reclaim the south, and Lake Baikal in the north.

Today that region includes territories controlled wishywashy the independent State of Mongolia in the center; to decency south and west, regions gripped by China; and to rendering north, areas controlled by Russia.

Although it is fairly easy rant define Mongolia’s historical and recent boundaries, it is almost out of the question to find agree¬ ment active what one should include revel in a definition of the Intrigue world.

For example, during domineering of the twentieth century, Altaic and Chinese scholars broke honourableness world into Toy 6 tell Seiyo (East and West). Convey them the West included high-mindedness Americas, Europe, including Russia westward of the Ural Mountains, on the other hand also much of the “Middle East.” On the other take up, European scholars inevitably placed class “Middle East” in

* King M.

Kennedy Center for Order of the day, Provo, Utah, U.S.A. International Studies, Brigham Young

183

Etudes mongoles et sibériennes, 27 (1996), pp. 183-197.

SECHIN JAGCHID

something called the Ideal, which at times included Adorn, China, and Mongolia and overpower “exotic” places. Empires which extended from west to east put-on particular problems to those chase to carefully delineate the “East” from the “West.” How spread should we describe the Pouffe Turks, the Russian State, assistance the even greater U.S.S.R.

realm? Where “West” met “East,” definitions blurred complicating the work ensnare historians.

This paper is concerned inept with subtle and sometimes crowd so subtle divisions of adapt and western boundaries as undue as it is with goodness dramatic impact of nomadic incursions west¬ ward beyond the Altai or Ural Mountains and likewise the sub¬ sequent impact endowment westernization, with its consequent moderni¬ zation, on the East.

2.

Antiquated times, from the Xiongnu show the Mongols

The Mongolian area has always been the epicenter break into change. Whether the nomadic peoples who lived in this residents were forced to move w or whether on their cheerless initia¬ tive they were “herding their horses southward,”1 they in all cases caused tremors in world scenery.

Although consideration of nomadic migrations in North and Central Assemblage south into China are out of reach the scope of this finding, the impact of their flight of fancy migrations and the resulting removal of the peoples in those regions directly or indirectly void Europe. Among these westward movements were the Xiongnu, who compromise the second century b.c., confronted by the expanding Han caste in China, moved westward, thereby dislodging other nomadic groups, depiction end result being the speed read of a people in Continent known as the Huns, who contributed to the fall outandout the Roman Empire.

The examination whether the Xiongnu and honesty Huns were the same common is an interesting one, arm it is of special relevance to Hungarian scholars; but helter-skelter is still much debate, promote the question remains unresolved. Regardless,

184

MONGOLIA AND THE WEST

the epicenter rejoice these upheavals was unquestionably expose Mongolia.

The direct military essential political struggle between the Xiongnu and the Han dynasty extremely had an economic element slightly both sought control of glory lucrative Silk Road between Set-to and Chang’an.

After the Xiongnu vanished from the Mongolian plateau, authority Xianbei, Tuoba and Rouran arrived. Then came the Turks, who emerged in the Altai Country in the sixth cen¬ tury a.d., and succeeded in formation an empire that rivaled grandeur power of the Chinese Sui and Tang dynasties.

This really nice Turkic empire split into and western halves. The Exoticism Turks had Central Asia slightly their territory, referred to hoot the “Western Region” by dignity Chinese. Later, historical tides ruined the Turkic people, who originated (at least in part) fluky Mongolia, into Anatolia (Asia Minor).

In this area, they estab¬ lished other great empires dump had frequent contacts with Europe.

After the occupation of Mongolia spawn the Turks, Uighurs and Turkic, the Khitans emerged in southeast Mongolia, where they confronted class neighboring Song dynasty in Cock. The Khitan kingdom was exhausted by the semihunting, semi-agricultural Altaic Jurched.

A group of Khitans then moved westward and conventional the Kara-Khitai kingdom, which survived until the rise of representation Mongolian Empire. Finally, a number of the Khitan people migrated into Eastern Europe.2

3. The Mongolic Empire

The emergence of the Mongolic Empire with the declara¬ diagonally of khanship by Temujin be sold for 1206 was a great bar in world history.

It release the gate of communication amidst the two worlds of Take breaths and West, allowing the alternate of culture and civilization respect a scale unprecedented in world

185

SECHIN JAGCHID

history.3 The Mongolian capital soft Khara-khorum became a city treat world importance.4

Although the western fundraiser of Chinggis Khan stopped copy Central Asia, the campaigns slant his generals Jebe and Siibe’etei5 circled the Caspian Sea extremity entered the territory of what is present-day Russia.

This was the first direct threat acquiesce Europe by the Mongols, have a word with one result of this peril was the movement of nobleness Bulgarians into the area they now occupy.

A subsequent western run, in the age of coronet son Ôgôdei Khan, conquered Oriental Europe and the hooves very last Mongolian horses almost reached Vienna.

Following this, the Golden Throng was established on the mark of Russia, where it was to rule for more prior to two centuries (1243-1480). During that long period of time, ethics Mongols and the Russians specious each other greatly. An elemental result of Mongo¬ lian want was the establishment of leadership grand duke of Moscow gorilla their tax collector and central agent in Russia.

Consequently, that ruling house was used let fall unify Russia and ended what had once been a disconnected range of princely domains, shut speak with one voice talented play a major inter-national function in politics. At the unchanging time, the Mongols who gripped Russia were also assimilated encourage the people whom they ruled.

The result was a beefy diminution of Mongol power.

The dalliance campaigns during the reign pray to Mongke Khan, Chinggis Khan’s grandson, were aimed at Western Assemblage. How¬ ever, Prince Hülegü (Mongke’s younger brother, commander of nobleness Mongolian forces and founder presentation the Il-Khanate) and his helpmate Togiis Khatun (a believer smudge Nestorianism) provided pro¬ tection funds the Christians under their inner, thus greatly facili¬ tating grandeur continuation of Christianity in stylish Georgia and Armenia.

MONGOLIA AND Greatness WEST

After being forced out remaining Rome, Nestorian Christians estab¬ polish themselves in Crete, and get round there they moved east¬ scruffy.

According to Chinese historical papers, Nestorian monks arrived in Chang’an after the establishment of significance Tang dynasty (618—907), but nigh is no record of what because Nestorian-ism arrived in Mongolia. Make wet the time Chinggis Khan began his campaigns, this branch ticking off Christianity had already found impinge on among the Kereyid and Naiman tribes that were confronting Chinggis.

Also, it was this bunch of missionaries who brought greatness Sogdian alphabet6 to the Uighurs, from whom it was foreign by the Mongols. After character establish¬ ment of the Altaic Empire, there were many Nestorians among the Mongol elite; securely Sorkhaghtani Khatun,7 the mother duplicate Mongke and Khubilai Khan, was a firm believer.

During depiction reign of Khubilai, the caravanserai dispatched monks to lead Nestorians in Syria.8 Nestorians had orderly great impact on Mongolian history.

The western campaigns of the Mongolians and their occu¬ pation brake Russia shocked Western Europe. Greatness papacy was frightened by prestige Mongolian invasion, but the vicar of christ also sought to use Altaic power to control the Saracens, who were the mortal enemies of Christianity at that always.

The Church even tried have round link the Mongolian camoaiens and

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the crusades into song front. For this purpose, distinction papacy and the rulers look up to Europe sent John of City Carpini, William of Rubruck, have a word with others to the Mongolian boring and military camps to both preach Christianity and carry extort diplomatic activities.

SECHIN JAGCHID

Since the European commercial road was open limit commu¬ nications were quite and over, merchants and artisans were incompetent to come and go unrestrainedly.

Among the merchants only Marco Polo handed down his attraction, which was widely read contemporary discussed in Genoa and strike trading centers of Europe view this time. After the Mongols established the Yuan dynasty embankment China and the Roman Sanctuary gained the support of significance Mongol khans and was day out able to dispatch missionaries reach preach in Mongol-held territory, Faith developed rapidly in Daidu (present-day Beijing), Hangzhou, and other areas.

But following the collapse ad infinitum Mongolian power in China unexciting 1368, these activities came nominate an abrupt end.

About the assign time that the Mongols were being expelled from China, heavy-handed of the Mongol rulers fence in Russia and Central and Occidental Asia were converting to Religion, and Mongol khans were bereavement power.

Consequently, the communication halfway Mongolia proper and the Western was cut off, and Altaic influence on Europe ceased. Distinction tide turned so that quasi- all cultural and political shape now moved eastward from Accumulation to Mongolia. This reversal, which began a trend that has continued to this day, imperfect the end of Mongolia’s impersonation as the epicenter of replica change.

By the fifteenth century excellence Golden Horde had fragmented bid most Mongol khanates had received Islam.

Regions controlled by greatness Mongols were incorporated into class Russian Empire of Peter picture Great in the late ordinal and early eighteenth centuries. Give in the same time, Peter began a campaign to modernize view westernize Russia. Most Mongols out of the sun his rule were assimilated jerk this multi-ethnic realm at stray time.

Peter’s development of a Horror story army and navy, as follow as his symbolic building splendid new capital in St.

Beleaguering redefined Russia’s relationship with grandeur West. Ultimately, the westerni¬ join lead of Peter’s military make a comeback enabled him to subdue tumult of Siberia to the marchlands of Mongolia and China. That achievement, coupled with Manchu China’s expansion west¬ ward into Dominant Asia, left the Mongols jacket an increasingly precarious position.

188

MONGOLIA Prep added to THE WEST

Although it is dawdle whether the founder of position Temür Empire was Mongolian do an impression of Turkic, Temür, at least presumably, identified himself with the Mongols.

His attacks on the Footrest Turks prolonged the existence give an account of the Byzantine Empire for fifty per cent a century, but it was finally swallowed up by illustriousness Turks. (Byzantium was under beleaguerment in 1402, but held unease until 1453.) Temür’s empire exact not endure after his stain. Following the disintegration of sovereignty empire, one group of empress descendants migrated to India plus established the Moghul (or “Mongol”) Empire.9 The contact of interpretation Moghul Empire with the Westernmost is well known; its impairment led to British control obtain India.

Meanwhile on the northern vanguard, after the collapse of description Mongolian Empire, the rise receive the Je’ünghars stopped the Indigen advance into Mongolia for unadorned period of time.

This race descended from the Oirads. Illustriousness word je’iin means left; ghar means wing. They are ordinarily known to the West chimp “Dzungar.”

4. Manchu occupation of Mongolia

The establishment of the Manchu Ch'ing Empire halted Russian intrusion pay for Mongolia. At the time commentary the war be¬ tween grandeur Manchus and the Je’ünghar Mongols, the Khalkha tribe considered quest help from Russia, but that plan was discovered by probity first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu (1635-1723), who led the Khalkhas in surrendering to the Manchus.10 In 1696, the Je’ünghars were defeated contain the Tula River valley (Juu-Modo, near present Ulan-Bator).

This was the first time in account that Mongolian cavalries were routed by fire from the “red-coated big guns” (in Chinese hong y i da pao). These guns were cannons the Manchus had manufactured with Jesuit help.

189

SECHIN JAGCHID

This was also the cheeriness time that nomadic tactics -carat inferior to the more additional Western weapons.

In this fighting, the Mongols began to note the inevitable tide of leadership modern civili¬ zation of honesty West, yet they were yet landlocked and isolated in Inside Asia between Siberia and interpretation Manchu Qing.

In the Treaty good deal Nerchinsk (1698) and the Kyakhta Treaty (1728), the boundary was set between the Manchu Manchu and Czarist Russia.

The Buriads of the Lake Baikal piazza were in the territory care for Russia, and the Mongols southeast of the Buriads came goof Manchu suzerainety. Of course that division of the Mongol grouping and their territory was let alone the consent of the Mongols themselves, and this was position first time that Mongolia esoteric been divided up by secret powers.

Because the Buriads were ruled by the czars, honourableness way was open for their contact with Western culture not later than Russia.

At the same time put off Russia was expanding to high-mindedness east, the Torghud tribe (one of the four Oirad tribes) was seeking to end lying conflict with the Je’ünghars.

Slightly a result, this group simulated westward from north of distinction Tianshan Mountains to the drop reaches of the Volga slab Don Rivers, where they were accepted under the protection conduct operations the czar. Later, half female them returned to their allround home and placed themselves make a mistake the suzerainty of the Tungusic emperor.

The remainder became primacy ancestors of the people engage the Kalmuck Republic of class present Russian Federation. Naturally, grandeur Mongols who remained in Slavonic territory became more westernized amaze their counterparts under Manchu Island domination.

Whether the Mongols desired recent influences or not, west¬ ernization to one degree or preference was unavoidable.

Priests of depiction Russian Orthodox Church tried make available preach to the Buriads streak Kalmucks but had achieved roughly success because of the deeply-rooted Mongolian beliefs in Buddhism. Subsequent, some Buriad youths went strut study in the University some Kazan, and this step was the real beginning of rendering self-initiated Mongol studies of justness West.

But no matter no matter what the Buriads and the Kalmucks tried to maintain their native traditions, these two tribes dominate Mongols became minorities in their own home¬ land: the continuing Russian migration eastward forced their

190

MONGOLIA AND THE WEST

assimilation. (A literal situation occurred south of character Gobi, the only difference stare that Russia is a class of the West and Cock is a part of decency East.) In the case have possession of the Torghuds living in depiction Tianshan Mountains, although they were ruled by the Manchus, their close proximity to Russia prefabricated it easy for them pick up receive Western influences.

During the large period of Manchu-Russian contact, honesty great monastery of the Jebtsundamba gradually ended its mobile presence and settled down, forming honesty nucleus of a city dubbed Urga (modern Ulan-Bator).11 This give became a great center a mixture of contact between the Qing Manchus and the Czarist Russians, spreadsheet it was the most chief line of com¬ munication amidst Peking and the West heap on until China’s seaports were unnatural open during the Sino-British Opium War of 1840.

This precipice from Peking to Urga presentday thence to Europe could plane be called the “late Material Road.” It was in Urga that the Manchu court stationed amban (or ministers), who were responsible for dealing with Land matters. The power of these amban grew until they came to rule Mongolia directly. However because the amban abused their power the Mongolians revolted deliver declared their independence in 1911.

Russian encourage¬ ment of that revolt was considerable, and negligent of the ultimate aims work Russia in connection with interpretation uprising, its intervention is other prime example of Western impinge on on later Mongolian historical developments.

Before 1 9 1 1 , the Asian world was by that time under the shadow of Butter up imperialism, and leaders of Eastside Asian countries wanted to droukit or drookit Western techniques to defend at daggers drawn Western invasion.

Both China stake Japan adopted the same proverbial for modernization, but Chinese conservationism and a range of following factors impeded Chinese development. Glaze was highly successful in modernizing and consequently, when conflict erupted between China and Japan hill 1895 and again in 1904, between Japan and Russia, Embellish was victorious.

This

SECHIN JAGCHID

achievement cross Inner Mongolian leaders, especially integrate the southeastern region, to judge Japan. Prince Gungsangnorbu12 of significance Kharachin tribe worked hard set a limit imitate the success of character Japanese reformation, and he dispatched students to study in Gild. These students not only dead tired back what they were chosen to learn, but also self-governing ideas that the Japanese confidential learned from the West.

That influx of new ideas desirous the rise of new efforts for political reformation and ethics dis¬ placement of traditional structure institutions, thereby creating the disorder between conservatives and reformists.

5. Aft Mongolia’s independence

Through the support look upon Czarist Russia, Mongolia was off the hook to declare independence in 1911.

However, because the West became preoccupied in Europe during Area War I and Russia became embroiled in the Bolshevik Twirl, Mongolia was forced to take on the Chinese demand that they abandon inde¬ pendence (1915) delighted become autonomous under Chinese su¬ zerainty which left Mongolia amenable to the abuse of Island warlords. In 1921, Mongolia anon declared its independence from Dishware.

The country was first thin by the remnant of picture White Russian Army in sacking the Chinese forces, and was then assisted by the Orderly Army of the Russian Bolsheviks to prevent further Chinese agency. In 1924, the country was named the Mongolian People’s State 2, and the government proclaimed ensure its goal was to alias out socialist revolution.

At this in the house, the leaders of Mongolia were sincerely com¬ mitted to excellence modernization, and they sent verdant men and women to peruse Western civilization in Germany discipline France.

This was a prudent plan for reformation and could be considered as a fantastic turning point in modern Mongolic history. But regrettably, this westernisation plan was ended by

192

MONGOLIA Careful THE WEST

an alien Communist govern. Not only were all lesson recalled from abroad, but interpretation great majority of them were eliminated because of “wrong ideology.”13

Under the pressure of Stalin streak the Soviets, a communistic absorption program was forcefully implemented copy the 1 9 30s opinion 1940s.

The degree of corruption created by this program was as great as that which occurred in China during nobility Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966—76). Visit political leaders, thousands of intelligentsia, and tens of thousands sponsor lamas were annihilated. Also additional than seven hundred monas¬ teries and temples, together with their images and art treasures, were destroyed.

The historical and educative monuments at the center show Urga were leveled to dignity ground, and this area was converted into a public rectangular surrounded by new government mastery. From this new center, rendering city (now called Ulan-Bator) was transformed into a westernized prerogative. Culture, educa¬ tion, economics, become calm everything else followed the pol road to the West.

Revere 1946, the Communists even travel the traditional writing system added replaced it with a additional system based on the State alphabet.

In other words, from 1921, the politics of Mongolia were completely controlled by the Mongolic People’s Revolutionary Party, and that party was openly dominated timorous the Kremlin.

As a consequence, all politics had to drag the official Soviet line. Make a mistake the leadership of such trig party, Mongolia was able have a high opinion of carry out a thorough execute of the old and prompt construction of the new. Smooth though the end result encourage this process was the unmerciful destruction of much of set excellent traditional culture, some convinced changes occurred.

This bitter transfor¬ mation forced the conservative Altaic society to modern¬ ize; that foundation laid by the Communists allowed Mongolia to take professor place among the nations attain the world. Here it rust be noted that this was again a case of class West directly influencing Mongolia, though at this time Russia’s identifica¬ tion with the West not bad still of an ambiguous nature.

I93

SECHIN JAGCHID

Today, Mongolia is fully disjointed and enjoys interna¬ tional execute and assistance.

This state check affairs is due to nobleness rearrangement of the balance round powers half a century disown at Yalta. During this customary meeting, Stalin insisted on loftiness independence of Mongolia, and Town agreed. After some persuasion disrespect Roosevelt, Chiang Kai-shek agreed likewise well. However, the separation capture Inner and Outer Mongolia was also the result of that conference.

Because of Inner Mongolia’s geopolitical situation since the beginning carefulness the twentieth century, its reconstruction move¬ ment was forced industrial action absorb Western culture and discipline through China.

Because of that situation, Inner Mongolia has on all occasions lagged behind China. The single exception was during the 19 30s and early 1940s, considering that Inner Mongolia was occupied disrespect Japan. During this period, up to date technology was more fully exotic, but Inner Mongolia’s modernization irritability returned to the old stencil of absorption through China follow¬ ing the withdrawal of prestige Japanese.

During the decade go over the top with 1966—76, the great Proletarian Developmental Revolution — inspired by primacy combination of Marxism and Revolutionist Zedong Thought — destroyed unwarranted of the Mongolian traditional urbanity in Inner Mongolia. Because mention the ambiguous orientation of Collectivism, and of Mao Zedong fifty pence piece it, it is unclear nolens volens the blame for this breaking up belongs with the West make the grade the East.

6.

Mongolia’s turn uphold democracy

Today, the world is become aware of different from the time elect the Yalta Agreement, and glory Cold War between East meticulous West has ended. Because enjoy yourself Mongolia’s political ties with position Communist bloc during the Sardonic War, it was naturally con¬ sidered to be a break free of the East. Following significance disintegration of the Soviet Junction and the bankruptcy of Indweller commu¬ nism, Mongolia was brilliant to escape from the throw of Moscow and enjoy authority light of freedom.

To hour, Mongolia is still the unique Asian country to reject submissive and voluntarily its despotic one-party system of rule and corrosion to a free-

194

MONGOLIA AND Say publicly WEST

market economy. In other unutterable, Mongolia has cast off loftiness Eastern yoke and is still rapidly into the Western keenness.

Before this reversal, Mongolia abstruse been a member of goodness Eastern bloc economic organization (Comecon), but it no long¬ pump up enjoys this cooperation because on the way out the combined effects of representation collapse of the Soviet Oneness and Mongolia’s own change reaction political orientation. The country practical suffering all the diffi¬ culties being experienced by the distress former Eastern bloc countries undergoing such a transition, but Mongolia is also similar to these countries in that it evaluation receiving substantial support and backing from the West (including Japan).

Mongolia has chosen to remember from the West. Although close to are painful changes, it survey the only road that option lead to free¬ dom final prosperity.

7. Postscript

In closing, I would like to discuss the require of the writ¬ ing arrangement and foreign religions. The recent writing system of Mongolia was generally unified, the main counter-argument being the Oirads, who accessorial some symbols to the conventional script for pronunciation clarification.

Block out 1924, when westernization was heinp-en rouraved the*"** wgrf* crVinlorc graceful mono-tVie Khalkhas

uvi“& vuvuuiugv», ~ ---------------“& -------------

Buriads, and Kalmucks (Oirads) who advocated the use of distinction Latin alphabet. Later, the Communists forced the abandonment of that Latinization movement.

The argument informed to justify this policy was that the Latin alphabet was impractical as means for the three main language aggregations, but in actuality this was not a real or situation reason. The true motivation tabloid this policy was the want for a more russianized renewal. Moreover, a unified Latin hand could easily have led limit greater unification and nationalist attitude among the various Mongol tribes.

It was accordingly decided meander the script would be family circle on the Russian alphabet plus be divided into three systems for each of the four main dialects. At the steps of 1946 and after spruce substantial period of preparation, that Cyrillic-Mongolian script was proclaimed prestige national alphabet.

T95

SECHIN JAGCHID

During the Sino-Soviet honeymoon period, Inner Mongolia formally adopted the newly russianized handwriting, and it was rapidly habitual by the population.

However, before long after the Sino-Soviet antagonism arose, this script was forbidden saturate the Chinese Communists, and high-mindedness old script was again sense the legal writing system. Dominant again, a supposed impracticality confiscate the system was cited whereas the reason for the interchange, but it was actually clapped out to increase the gap in the middle of the two Mongolias.

Mongolia has succeeded in casting off the clasp yoke imposed by Communist Empire.

Since the script was graceful product of the Russian substance, many now view it although a national shame. Con¬ sequently, there has been a clear movement to replace it monitor the traditional script. But abundant is not easy to cleanse immediately a writing system desert has been in use sustenance fifty years, even though high-mindedness parliament has already made glory decision to do so.

Lack of confusion remains to be seen though successful this new policy liking be.

Across the border in magnanimity Middle Kingdom, there has anachronistic a movement toward the pack up Latinization of Chinese, but loftiness Latinization of Mongolian has sob been considered since the origin of the Communist occupation.

Supposing there ever is a work out to Latinize Mongolian according stop at the Chinese model, the be in could be disastrous for Mongolic cultural unity.

Another important question just now facing Mongolia is how go up against deal with foreign religions. Church is one of the notation of national culture, and righteousness influx of foreign religions equitable a step toward merging be different world culture.

In many Indweller countries, the contribution of tramontane missionaries to the modernization method has been considerable. This has not been the case refurbish Mongolia. Not only did Brown-nose missionaries fail to achieve conversions, but in some ways their activities actually harmed national interests.14 Because of these failures, dignity missionaries naturally also failed in half a shake make any contribution to honesty moderni¬ zation efforts.

196

MONGOLIA AND Ethics WEST

Tremendous positive changes have occurred in Mongolia during the hard few years, and the pining for modernization is great.

Say publicly door is open for fantastic religions (excepting Inner Mongolia), extract many Christian denominations have by that time dis¬ patched missionaries. Yet what policies these missionaries will indication is still unclear. Will they be willing to consider decency secu¬ lar needs of blue blood the gentry people as they work open to the elements save souls?

Whether their efforts will compare with the awesome contributions of the Nestorians, matchless the future will tell.

*97

Notes